{"id":335961,"date":"2024-11-26T11:00:39","date_gmt":"2024-11-26T05:30:39","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.scconline.com\/blog\/?p=335961"},"modified":"2024-11-26T14:46:10","modified_gmt":"2024-11-26T09:16:10","slug":"the-gamut-of-miranda-rights-in-the-united-states-a-constitutional-conundrum","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.scconline.com\/blog\/post\/2024\/11\/26\/the-gamut-of-miranda-rights-in-the-united-states-a-constitutional-conundrum\/","title":{"rendered":"The Gamut of Miranda Rights in the United States: A Constitutional Conundrum"},"content":{"rendered":"
\n

T<\/span>he United States Constitution (US Constitution) is one of the smallest constitutions globally with only seven articles. There have been a total of twenty-seven amendments to the US Constitution, beginning with the Bill of Rights i.e. the first ten amendments. When the US Constitution was adopted in 1789, it did not contain the Bill of Rights, and did not, therefore, provide for the privilege against self-incrimination. It was only on 15-12-1791, when the Fifth Amendment was ratified that brought several protections for the people, including protection against self-incrimination. Similar to Article 20(3)<\/a> of the Constitution of India<\/a>1<\/sup><\/a>, the Fifth Amendment to the US Constitution2<\/sup><\/a> expounds, inter alia, that no person shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself.<\/p>\n

Prior to 1966, the privilege against self-incrimination in the United States was interpreted in a narrow manner and did not extend to custodial interrogation. Essentially, there was no protection against statements made by arrestees during custodial interrogation. Finally, the United States Supreme Court in ,\u00a0Miranda<\/span> v. State of Arizona<\/span>3<\/sup><\/a>, deprecated this practice while categorically putting the constitutional issue of the admissibility of statements obtained from an arrestee, holding that the prosecution could not use statements, whether exculpatory or inculpatory, stemming from custodial interrogation unless it demonstrated the use of procedural safeguards effective to secure the privilege against self-incrimination. The Court went on to say, \u201cBy custodial interrogation, we mean questioning initiated by law enforcement officers after a person has been taken into custody or otherwise deprived of his freedom of action in any significant way.\u201d Identifying the evils in a coercive interrogation atmosphere, it was held that when an individual was taken into custody or otherwise deprived of his freedom by the authorities in any significant way and was subjected to questioning, the privilege against self-incrimination was jeopardised. Thus, such an individual would have to be apprised of his right to silence and that anything he said could be used against him in a court of law; that he had had the right to the presence of an attorney, and if he could not afford one, he could be provided with one if he so desired. It was further held that unless the said individual to whom the warnings were issued did not knowingly and intelligently waive these rights, his statements could not be used against him. However, while parting with the ruling, the Court interjected that the decision in no way created a constitutional straitjacket that would handicap sound efforts at reform, nor was it intended to have such an effect. \u201cWe encourage Congress and the States to continue their laudable search for increasingly effective ways of protecting the rights of the individual while promoting efficient enforcement of our criminal laws. However, unless we are shown other procedures which are at least as effective in apprising accused persons of their right of silence and in assuring a continuous opportunity to exercise it, the following safeguards must be observed,\u201d the Court concluded.<\/p>\n

The effect of this ruling had far-reaching consequences not only in the United States but also in India. The Supreme Court of India referenced Miranda<\/span>4<\/sup><\/a> in landmark judgments such as Nandini Satpathy<\/span> v. P.L. Dani<\/span>5<\/sup><\/a> and Joginder Kumar<\/span> v. State of U.P.<\/span>6<\/sup><\/a> In fact in Nandini Satpathy case<\/span>7<\/sup><\/a>, the Supreme Court, speaking through Justice Krishna Iyer, while examining the interrelation of Section 1618<\/sup><\/a> CrPC with Article 20(3), observed that the Miranda ruling9<\/sup><\/a> clothed the Fifth Amendment with flesh and blood (emphasis added) and so must we (India), if Article 20(3) is not to prove a promise of unreality. However, the US Supreme Court, on several occasions, declined to follow Miranda\u2014either by carving out exceptions to it or declining to entertain petitions for violation of the so-called \u201cMiranda rights\u201d. The conundrum about Miranda\u2019s true constitutional status began in Michigan<\/span> v. W. Tucker<\/span>10<\/sup><\/a> where the arrestee was not fully advised of his Miranda rights before being questioned in custody. Despite noting this, the US Supreme Court held that the statements were admissible because the records clearly demonstrated that the statements were not involuntary. Thereafter, in New York<\/span> v. Quarles<\/span>11<\/sup><\/a>, the defendant who was apprehended in a supermarket while purportedly carrying a gun, upon being asked about it\u2014without administering Miranda rights\u2014responded by nodding in the direction of some empty cartons and said, \u201cthe gun is over there\u201d. The New York Courts excluded the defendant\u2019s statements as well as the gun itself because it was obtained in violation of Miranda. The matter came up for consideration before the US Supreme Court which, however, declined to follow Miranda, instead carving out a \u201cpublic safety\u201d exception. The Bench, interestingly, reiterated an excerpt from Tucker<\/span>12<\/sup><\/a> in its opinion, \u201cThe prophylactic Miranda warnings therefore are \u201cnot themselves rights protected by the constitution but are instead measures to ensure that the right against compulsory self-incrimination is protected,\u201d while holding that the doctrinal underpinnings of Miranda<\/span>13<\/sup><\/a> were inapplicable to a situation in which police officers asked questions reasonably prompted by a public safety concern.<\/p>\n

In wake of multiple Supreme Court decisions labelling Miranda as \u201cprophylactic,\u201d and that Miranda was not a \u201cconstitutional straitjacket,\u201d Congress enacted a section addressing admissibility of confessions14<\/sup><\/a> which melted down the rigours contemplated in Miranda<\/span>15<\/sup><\/a>, making all incriminating statements made in custody admissible so long as they were voluntary. This law appeared to be in consonance with the Supreme Court\u2019s holding in Tucker<\/span>16<\/sup><\/a> which set the stage to override Miranda. However, the US Supreme Court struck down this law. In Dickerson<\/span> v. United States<\/span>17<\/sup><\/a>, the Court held that Miranda<\/span>18<\/sup><\/a> being a constitutional decision, could not be in effect overruled by an Act of Congress. It was observed that while Congress had the ultimate authority to modify or set aside any rules that were not constitutionally required, it could not have superseded the Court\u2019s decisions interpreting and applying the Constitution. The Court observed, \u201cRelying on the fact that we have created several exceptions to Miranda\u2019s warnings requirement and that we have repeatedly referred to the Miranda warnings as \u201cprophylactic,\u201d New York<\/span> v. Quarles<\/span>19<\/sup><\/a>, and \u201cnot themselves rights protected by the Constitution,\u201d Michigan<\/span> v. Tucker<\/span>20<\/sup><\/a>, the Court of Appeals concluded that the protections announced in Miranda<\/span>21<\/sup><\/a> are not constitutionally required. We disagree with the Court of Appeals\u2019 conclusion, although we concede that there is language in some of our opinions that supports the view taken by that court<\/span>.\u201d In essence, the Court seemed to deviate from Tucker<\/span>22<\/sup><\/a> in holding that the constitution required Miranda warnings, suggesting that mere voluntariness was not the standard.<\/p>\n

In this backdrop, and placing reliance on Dickerson<\/span>23<\/sup><\/a>, the respondent in Vega<\/span> v. Tekoh<\/span>24<\/sup><\/a>, who was acquitted, brought an action against the prosecution seeking damages for alleged violations of his constitutional rights, including his Fifth Amendment right against compelled self-incrimination because he was not informed of his Miranda rights. The jury decided in favour of the defendant, whereupon the plaintiff appealed. The Appeals Court reversed, holding that the use of an un-Mirandised statement against a defendant in a criminal proceeding violated the Constitution which very well could give rise to a claim for violation of constitutional rights. Despite acknowledging that the Supreme Court had repeatedly said that Miranda adopted prophylactic rules designed to protect against constitutional violations and that contravention of those rules did not necessarily constitute a constitutional violation, the Appeals Court observed that Dickerson<\/span>25<\/sup><\/a> had made it clear that the right of a criminal defendant against having an un-Mirandised statement introduced in the prosecution\u2019s case in chief was indeed a right secured by the Constitution. Interestingly, this decision was revered by the US Supreme Court holding that Miranda rules were \u201cprophylactic\u201d and a violation thereof did not necessarily result in an outright Fifth Amendment violation.<\/p>\n

The US Supreme Court\u2019s approach with respect to Miranda has muddied the waters raising questions about the significance of rulings qua constitutional interpretations. On one hand, the US Supreme Court in Tucker<\/span>26<\/sup><\/a> held admissible incriminating statements administered without full Miranda warnings because they were not involuntary and on the other, Dickerson<\/span>27<\/sup><\/a> struck down 18 USC \u00a7 350128<\/sup><\/a>\u2014a law essentially stemming from Tucker<\/span>29<\/sup><\/a> and other decisions\u2014, holding that Congress could not supersede the Supreme Court\u2019s decision in interpreting and applying the Constitution. While striking down the law, Dickerson<\/span>30<\/sup><\/a> also categorically observed that the Miranda warnings were constitutionally required. However, the Vega Court, by once again labelling Miranda as a \u201cjudicially crafted prophylactic rule\u201d that applies \u201conly where its benefits outweighed its costs,\u201d appears to have restored the views rendered in Tucker case<\/span>31<\/sup><\/a> and other decisions supporting the constitutionality of 18 USC \u00a7 350132<\/sup><\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

*Former lawyer at the Bombay High Court and the founder of GT Legal a data privacy consultancy based in Canada. LLM graduate from Northeastern University, Boston, United States, holding a CIPP\/US. Author can be reached at: gauravthote10@gmail.com<\/a>.<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n

1.<\/a> Constitution of India, Art. 20(3)<\/a><\/p>\n

20. (3) Protection in respect of conviction for offences.<\/span>\u00beNo person accused of an offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself.<\/a><\/p>\n

2.<\/a> Fifth Amendment to the US Constitution: No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb<\/a>; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself<\/span>, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.<\/a><\/p>\n

3.<\/a> 1966 SCC OnLine US SC 112 : 16 L Ed 2d 694 : 384 US 436 (1966).<\/a><\/p>\n

4.<\/a> 1966 SCC OnLine US SC 112 : 16 L Ed 2d 694 : 384 US 436 (1966).<\/a><\/p>\n

5.<\/a> (1978) 2 SCC 424.<\/a><\/p>\n

6.<\/a> (1994) 4 SCC 260.<\/a><\/p>\n

7.<\/a> (1978) 2 SCC 424.<\/a><\/p>\n

8.<\/a> Criminal Procedure Code, 1973, S. 161.<\/a><\/p>\n

9.<\/a> 1966 SCC OnLine US SC 112 : 16 L Ed 2d 694 : 384 US 436 (1966), para 31.<\/a><\/p>\n

10.<\/a> 1974 SCC OnLine US SC 125 : 41 L Ed 2d 182 : 417 US 433 (1974).<\/a><\/p>\n

11.<\/a> 1984 SCC OnLine US SC 143 : 81 L Ed 2d 550 : 467 US 649 (1984).<\/a><\/p>\n

12.<\/a> 1974 SCC OnLine US SC 125: 41 L Ed 2d 182 : 417 US 433, 444 (1974).<\/a><\/p>\n

13.<\/a> 1966 SCC OnLine US SC 112 : 16 L Ed 2d 694 : 384 US 436 (1966).<\/a><\/p>\n

14.<\/a> 18 USC \u00a7 3501 \u2014 Admissibility of Confessions.<\/p>\n

15.<\/a> 1966 SCC OnLine US SC 112 : 16 L Ed 2d 694 : 384 US 436 (1966).<\/a><\/p>\n

16.<\/a> 1974 SCC OnLine US SC 125: 41 L Ed 2d 182 : 417 US 433 (1974).<\/a><\/p>\n

17.<\/a> 2000 SCC OnLine US SC 67 : 530 US 428 (2000).<\/a><\/p>\n

18.<\/a> 1966 SCC OnLine US SC 112 : 16 L Ed 2d 694 : 384 US 436 (1966).<\/a><\/p>\n

19.<\/a> 1984 SCC OnLine US SC 143 : 81 L Ed 2d 550 : 467 US 649, 653 (1984).<\/a><\/p>\n

20.<\/a> 1974 SCC OnLine US SC 125: 41 L Ed 2d 182 : 417 US 433, 444 (1974).<\/a><\/p>\n

21.<\/a> 1966 SCC OnLine US SC 112 : 16 L Ed 2d 694 : 384 US 436 (1966).<\/a><\/p>\n

22.<\/a> 1974 SCC OnLine US SC 125: 41 L Ed 2d 182 : 417 US 433, 444 (1974).<\/a><\/p>\n

23.<\/a> 2000 SCC OnLine US SC 67 : 530 US 428 (2000).<\/a><\/p>\n

24.<\/a> 2022 SCC OnLine US SC 86 : 213 L Ed 2d 479 : 142 S Ct 2095 (2022) : 597 US __ (2022).<\/a><\/p>\n

25.<\/a> 2000 SCC OnLine US SC 67 : 530 US 428 (2000).<\/a><\/p>\n

26.<\/a> 1974 SCC OnLine US SC 125: 41 L Ed 2d 182 : 417 US 433, 444 (1974).<\/a><\/p>\n

27.<\/a> 2000 SCC OnLine US SC 67 : 530 US 428 (2000).<\/a><\/p>\n

28.<\/a> 18 USC \u00a7 3501 \u2014 Admissibility of Confessions.<\/p>\n

29.<\/a> 1974 SCC OnLine US SC 125: 41 L Ed 2d 182 : 417 US 433 (1974).<\/a><\/p>\n

30.<\/a> 2000 SCC OnLine US SC 67 : 530 US 428 (2000).<\/a><\/p>\n

31.<\/a> 1974 SCC OnLine US SC 125: 41 L Ed 2d 182 : 417 US 433 (1974).<\/a><\/p>\n

32.<\/a> 18 USC \u00a7 3501 \u2014 Admissibility of Confessions.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

by Gaurav Thote*<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":8808,"featured_media":335988,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[42503,1191],"tags":[54420,75615,75617,75614,75616,3552,75183,49862],"class_list":["post-335961","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-legal-analysis","category-op-ed","tag-bill-of-rights","tag-constitutional-conundrum","tag-constitutional-straitjacket","tag-gamut-of-miranda-rights","tag-prophylactic","tag-United_States","tag-united-states-constitution","tag-us-constitution"],"yoast_head":"\nThe Gamut of Miranda Rights in the United States: A Constitutional Conundrum | SCC Times<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"The United States Constitution (US Constitution) is one of the smallest constitutions globally with only seven articles\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" 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acquittal of the Respondent of the felony offense of domestic assault in Indian Country\u2026","rel":"","context":"In "Case Briefs"","block_context":{"text":"Case Briefs","link":"https:\/\/www.scconline.com\/blog\/post\/category\/casebriefs\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"Supreme Court of The United States","src":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.scconline.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/01\/supreme_court_of_US.jpg?resize=350%2C200&ssl=1","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.scconline.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/01\/supreme_court_of_US.jpg?resize=350%2C200&ssl=1 1x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.scconline.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/01\/supreme_court_of_US.jpg?resize=525%2C300&ssl=1 1.5x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.scconline.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/01\/supreme_court_of_US.jpg?resize=700%2C400&ssl=1 2x, https:\/\/i0.wp.com\/www.scconline.com\/blog\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/01\/supreme_court_of_US.jpg?resize=1050%2C600&ssl=1 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Wade overruled after 49 years","author":"Editor","date":"June 25, 2022","format":false,"excerpt":"Supreme Court of The United States: In a far-reaching decision concerning an American woman\u2019s right to abortion, the Court held that the Constitution of United States does not confer any right vis-\u00e0-vis abortions. This judgment decisively overrules the landmark SCOTUS ruling of Roe v. 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