{"id":302375,"date":"2023-09-26T15:00:05","date_gmt":"2023-09-26T09:30:05","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.scconline.com\/blog\/?p=302375"},"modified":"2023-12-22T17:08:04","modified_gmt":"2023-12-22T11:38:04","slug":"soft-law-guidance-from-arbitral-organisations-for-conducting-arbitrations","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.scconline.com\/blog\/post\/2023\/09\/26\/soft-law-guidance-from-arbitral-organisations-for-conducting-arbitrations\/","title":{"rendered":"Soft-Law Guidance from Arbitral Organisations for Conducting Arbitrations"},"content":{"rendered":"
\n

A. Introduction<\/h4>\n

The globally distributed arbitration system provides excellent theoretical foundations for an alternative to court litigation. Key foundational doctrines of the arbitration system are: party autonomy, separability of arbitration agreement, kompetenz-kompetenz (competence-competence), procedural flexibility, and the limited role of courts. The arbitration system has formidable support from many different institutional arbitration rules. There are also independent rule systems like the UNCITRAL<\/span> Arbitration Rules for ad hoc arbitrations.<\/p>\n

Yet, an arbitrator conducting an arbitration needs many more tools apart from the foundational doctrines and arbitral rules. The arbitrator\u2019s need for additional guidance is fulfilled by soft-law1<\/sup><\/a> guidance provided by arbitral institutions through guidance notes (Soft-law guidance). These soft-law guidance instruments exist in form of bulletins, reports, guidelines, rules, or opinions. The soft-law guidance exists in the areas that are either not covered by arbitral laws or institutional rules. Further, the soft-law guidance rapidly expands the practical applications of existing laws and rules without formal rule- making.<\/p>\n

This article surveys, as an overview, soft-law guidance from institutional sources. It collates and compares the soft-law guidance, particularly on topics where multiple institutions focus on the same topic. The survey\u2019s key focus is on: awards, costs, interest, procedural issues, and choice of law. Institutional soft-law guidance from United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL<\/span>), Chartered Institute of Arbitrators (CIArb)2<\/sup><\/a>, ICC ‘s International Court of Arbitration3<\/sup><\/a>, International Bar Association (IBA), International Council for Commercial Arbitration (ICCA), and ASA Swiss Arbitration are reviewed4<\/sup><\/a>. Soft-law guidance is a child of necessity given the decentralised, diverse nature of the global arbitration system. Soft-law guidance promotes, without imposing, best practices from the global experience of international arbitration practitioners and academics.<\/p>\n

B. Efficiency and best practices<\/h4>\n

The core ICC guide to an arbitration under its rules is titled, \u201cNote to Parties and Arbitral Tribunals on the Conduct of the Arbitration\u201d. It describes all the steps in a typical arbitration and the role of ICC Secretariat.<\/p>\n

The ICC guide emphasises case management conference as a tool to use the flexibility of arbitration. The ICC guide encourages efficiency by deciding on the mechanics of procedure early in the arbitration. Multiple topics provide guidance on costs, risk, and benefits at each step of an arbitration. The ICC\u2019s guidance in the guide covers: request for arbitration, answer and counterclaims, multiparty arbitration, early determination of issues, rounds of written submissions, document production, need for fact witnesses, fact witness statements, expert witnesses, hearing on the merits, and post-hearing briefs. In more practical terms, ICC has good guidance for building a procedural timetable in its guideline titled, \u201cModel Procedural Timetable\u201d along with a separate guideline for \u201cModel Terms of Reference\u201d.<\/p>\n

CIArb has a guideline titled, \u201cManaging Arbitrations and Procedural Orders\u201d. This CIArb guideline covers the nitty-gritty of an arbitration\u2019s administrative aspects. After considering the application of the lex arbitri, applicable rules, and any agreement by the parties, an arbitrator must develop a common understanding of the parties. The arbitrator\u2019s understanding of the parties leads to efficient dispute resolution. The CIArb guideline also provides a list of common points of consideration as administrative and procedural issues.<\/p>\n

The ICC has also published an \u201cICC Commission Report – Controlling Time and Costs in Arbitration\u201d that is styled as guidance for parties and their counsels. The ICC guide explains methods to control party\u2019s representation costs, which usually is the biggest component of overall arbitration expenses. Settlement considerations for the parties are explained in detail starting from whether to settle or not. Various methods of settlement, e.g., mediation, mini-trial, neutral evaluation, or hybrid dispute resolution, are explained. ICCA has published \u201cICCA Checklist First Procedural Order\u201d that covers common items found in a typical Procedural Order No. 1 (PO-1).<\/p>\n

Similarly, the UNCITRAL<\/span> has helpful soft-law guidance through its \u201cUNCITRAL<\/span> Notes on Organising Arbitral Proceedings\u201d (UNCITRAL<\/span> NOAP). The notes have particularly useful guidance beyond the UNCITRAL<\/span> Rules with a focus on practical aspects. For example, there is good guidance in the UNCITRAL<\/span> NOAP on hearings, evidence (experts and fact witnesses), documents, submissions, costs, interim measures and the tricky issue of joinder and consolidation.<\/p>\n

C. Pre-arbitration<\/h4>\n

CIArb provides a specific guideline on interviewing a prospective arbitrator titled \u201cInterviews for Prospective Arbitrators\u201d. As this is a twilight zone before an arbitrator is appointed, the sensitivities are heightened.<\/p>\n

Communication with a potential arbitrator is unilateral by its nature; it is between a prospective arbitrator and a party nominating that arbitrator in a typical three-member tribunal. CIArb provides many other guidelines for conduct of arbitration. CIArb\u2019s guideline on \u201cInterviews for Prospective Arbitrators\u201d provides detailed guidance on topics that can (Article 2) and cannot (Article 3) be discussed in interviews with potential arbitrators.<\/p>\n

An enquiry to be appointed as a party-nominated arbitrator is the first step in arbitrator\u2019s appointments. This enquiry is common in three-member tribunals even before an arbitrator consents. As the communication between the party nominating an arbitrator and the arbitrator is a unilateral (ex parte) communication, the CIArb guidelines suggests the potential arbitrator about \u201c\u2026 how to respond to a request for an interview by a party prior to an appointment (Article 1)\u201d to avoid a risk of a future challenge by a non-appointing party.<\/p>\n

CIArb also provides guidance on the contractual terms of appointment and remuneration of the arbitrators in a guideline titled, \u201cTerms of Appointment including Remuneration\u201d. The CIArb guidelines specify that arbitrators should agree with the parties about the basis of their appointment either, \u201cbefore or immediately after accepting an appointment\u201d keeping in mind lex arbitri, arbitral rules and contract clauses for arbitration. The appointment should be recorded in writing and should also include arbitrator remuneration. The arbitrator remuneration terms reduced in writing should cover method of calculation, commitment or cancellation fee, taxes, reimbursement of expenses, accounting and special terms for early termination or settlements, if any. Arbitrator remuneration terms are extremely sensitive and practical matters which must be settled early on with a clear agreement between all stakeholders.<\/p>\n

For guidance regarding drafting dispute resolution clauses IBA has published \u201cIBA Guidelines for Drafting International Arbitration Clauses\u201d. There is a core of eight drafting guidelines with numerous options that can be inbuilt into an international arbitration clause of a contract. There is also a rather unique ICCA guide for tribunal secretaries titled, \u201cYoung ICCA Guide on Arbitral Secretaries\u201d.<\/p>\n

D. Parties, non-parties, and non-party participation<\/h4>\n

A challenge for the arbitration system has been multi-party disputes. The CIArb provides a specific guideline for multi-party arbitration: \u201cPractice Guideline 15: Guidelines for Arbitrators on How to Approach Issues Relating to Multi-Party Arbitrations\u201d. The key feature of this CIArb guideline is the guidance covering \u201cchain contracts\u201d (back-to-back chain of dependent contracts). Chain contracts are familiar in construction subcontracting, resale of goods and sub-chartering of ships. The guideline considers consolidation and joinder under various arbitral rules system. Consent of the parties involved remains the primary requirement for joinder of the third parties in most systems. The guideline provides sound advice to arbitrators: \u201cWhile arbitrators may make suggestions as to how to deal with the type of questions discussed in this guideline, it is vital that they do not make orders for consolidation or concurrent hearings unless the arbitration agreement (including any rules incorporated in it) permits this.\u201d<\/p>\n

CIArb also has a guideline for non-participating party. This CIArb guideline is titled, \u201cParty Non-Participation\u201d. It clarifies an arbitrator\u2019s extended responsibilities when a party does not participate in the arbitration. The responsibilities extend to ascertaining if the claimant has a prima facie case and that the non-participating party has no acceptable excuse. If a party fails to participate in proceedings, that should not lead to an automatic conclusion of liability.<\/p>\n

Recently in 2023, CIArb has released a new guideline \u201cGuideline on Multiparty Arbitration (2023)\u201d. A non-party is an entity that was not a party to the arbitration agreement. A non-party\u2019s participation in an arbitration has been a tricky issue. The CIArb guideline states that participation of non-parties in arbitration can enabled by joinder, consolidation, and concurrent hearings. The CIArb guideline covers a situation where a non-party gives its consent to join the arbitration. In institutional arbitrations, the Arbitral Tribunal would have to follow the institutional rules\u2019 provisions for joinder of a non-party to the arbitration.<\/p>\n

IBA also has guidelines for arbitration practitioners representing parties in international arbitration. The guidelines are titled \u201cIBA Guidelines on Party Representation in International Arbitration\u201d. This guide is a parallel resource to ICCA\u2019s \u201cGuidelines on Standards of Practice, in International Arbitration -The ICCA Reports No. 3\u201d.<\/p>\n

E. Conflict of interest<\/h4>\n

The IBA has published a set of comprehensive guidelines titled \u201cIBA Guidelines on Conflicts of Interest in International Arbitration\u201d. The IBA guidelines cover in Part I the \u201cGeneral Standards Regarding Impartiality, Independence and Disclosure\u201d, while Part II covers \u201cPractical Application of the General Standards\u201d. The IBA guidelines are focused on arbitrator independence, a central requirement for the integrity of any arbitration process. The IBA guidelines use a reasonable third person standard to judge arbitrator independence expressed as, \u201c\u2026 a reasonable third person having knowledge of the relevant facts and circumstances, would give rise to justifiable doubts as to the arbitrator\u2019s impartiality or independence\u2026.\u201d The IBA guidelines specify disclosure standards for the arbitrator. Whenever there is a doubtful situation of disclosure, the guidelines require disclosure as the right choice.<\/p>\n

In Part II, the IBA guidelines have a colour coded set of guidelines. The non-waivable Red List standard that focuses on relationships between the arbitrator and the parties that make the arbitrator independence impossible. The next standard is the waivable Red List that covers various relationships of the arbitrator with either the dispute or the parties. The Orange List is focused on professional relationship of the arbitrator with the parties within a time-limit. The Green List covers contacts of the arbitrator, the parties, the counsel, and the arbitrator\u2019s previous opinions.<\/p>\n

F. Jurisdictional challenges<\/h4>\n

CIArb has a guideline for jurisdictional challenges in arbitrations with the title, \u201cJurisdictional Challenges\u201d. This CIArb guideline has four articles. First article advises the arbitrators about how to deal with jurisdictional challenges, which have potential to derail arbitrations. Second and third article describes two common types of challenges: jurisdictional and admissibility challenges. Fourth article advises arbitrators about how and when to deal with jurisdictional challenges in arbitration and the form of a jurisdictional ruling.<\/p>\n

G. Interim measures and emergency arbitrations<\/h4>\n

Interim measures have the potential to delay the main arbitral process. For one, they are sprung as a surprise at unsurprising times. CIArb has a helpful guideline titled, \u201cApplications for Interim Measures\u201d. The guideline states its coverage as: \u201c(i<\/span>) interim measures in general (Articles 1 to 6); (ii<\/span>) ex parte applications (Article 7); and (iii<\/span>) emergency arbitrators (Article 8).\u201d<\/p>\n

The CIArb guideline suggests caution while issuing ex parte relief because a fair opportunity has to be provided to all the sides. Any interim relief will have to be aligned to lex arbitri and the arbitration agreement. Further, there is sound advice to not pre-judge parties\u2019 cases at the interim stage. Securities can be sought as a safeguard against improperly obtained interim remedy. Article 3 of this CIArb guideline has sage advice that the arbitrators: (i<\/span>) cannot issue interim relief against non-parties; (ii<\/span>) arbitrators have no power to enforce their interim remedies; and (iii<\/span>) penalties for non-compliance are only possible if allowed by the arbitration agreement, applicable arbitral rules or the lex arbitri.<\/p>\n

ICC has a helpful checklist for \u201cICC Emergency Arbitrator Order Checklist\u201d<\/span> that covers necessary elements of a typical, enforceable emergency arbitrator\u2019s order under the ICC Rules.<\/p>\n

H. Evidence and documents<\/h4>\n

IBA provides arguably the most popular rules of taking evidence titled, \u201cIBA Rules on the Taking of Evidence in International Arbitration\u201d. These rules are of a recent 2020 vintage. They provide a useful tool for document production or discovery from an opposing party in international arbitration. The process largely works on the lines of a \u201cRedfern Schedule\u201d system, and the process relies on a very stylised document production process from the opponent with summary decisions on allowance or disallowance of production. Article 5 covers special rules for party-appointed experts, while Article 6 covers tribunal- appointed experts. Article 9 has good guidance on determining admissibility issues with the tribunals power to exclude certain evidence.<\/p>\n

In a sense, the IBA Rules on taking evidence provide a more uniform evidentiary process that is tailored to international arbitration rather a tribunal adapting evidence rules from the lex arbitri to the arbitration at hand. The civil law practitioners have championed the Prague Rules on taking evidence. The Prague Rules are a recent new option that has a civil law flavour. The Prague Rules emphasise an early and active role for the Tribunal in collecting evidence during an arbitration (Article 2- Proactive Role of the Arbitral Tribunal). Prague Rules also covers documentary evidence, evidence of factual witnesses and expert witness evidence.<\/p>\n

I. Experts and witness conferencing<\/h4>\n

CIArb has a guideline for \u201cParty-appointed and Tribunal-appointed Experts\u201d. The guideline covers power to appoint experts, assessing need to appoint an expert, methods of presenting expert evidence, directions for experts, and testing of experts\u2019 opinion. It is to be applied along with an annexed CIArb protocol titled, \u201cCIArb Protocol for the Use of Party-Appointed Expert Witnesses in International Arbitration\u201d. In the commentary, there is sage advice, \u201cArbitrators should not simply adopt an expert\u2019s opinion as this may result in a challenge on the ground that they have failed to make the decision and have delegated their decision-making responsibilities to the expert.\u201d<\/p>\n

While witness conferencing is a relatively new phenomenon in international arbitration, CIArb has a guideline on this new procedural innovation. This guideline is titled, \u201cGuidelines for Witness Conferencing in International Arbitration\u201d. Unlike many other CIArb guidelines, this guideline includes a checklist of issues to be considered by an arbitrator. Key factors for witness conferencing are discussed. The factors are: conflicting opinions on factual and specialist issues, factual evidence of multiple witnesses that needs to be tested, witness credibility, relationship of witnesses and logistical issues.<\/p>\n

J. Cost and security for costs<\/h4>\n

CIArb has provided useful guidance for costs in awards under the guideline titled, \u201cDrafting Arbitral Awards Part III – Costs\u201d. The guideline discusses the best practices related to costs, interim costs, control of costs, and allocation of costs among other factors. One key feature, particularly used in some common law countries, discussed in the CIArb guideline is the impact of settlement offers on costs. Arbitrators are advised to first consider reasonableness of costs and then the proportionality of costs with respect to the claim. Considerations for interim and final costs are also discussed.<\/p>\n

CIArb has a useful guideline for \u201cApplications for Security for Costs\u201d. This guideline operates in tandem with CIArb\u2019s guideline on \u201cGuideline on Applications for Interim Measures\u201d. The arbitrator must keep fairness of making one party pay security for costs in mind while not prejudging the dispute. Also, a caution is sounded that the arbitration may get derailed if the security for costs is not paid, particularly due to inability to pay. The arbitrator must practice procedural fairness in security of costs, e.g., a reasoned procedural order for such security, release of security in final award, time period for security, and the form of security.<\/p>\n

ICC has published an ICC Commission report titled \u201cDecisions on Costs in International Arbitration\u201d that is a detailed analysis of cost decisions5<\/sup><\/a>. Various aspects of costs such as jurisdictional approaches to costs, types of costs, cost allocation\u2019s relationship to effective case management, practical aspects of cost allocations like proof of costs, and third-party funding among other issues.<\/p>\n

K. Interest<\/h4>\n

CIArb provides a specific guideline for interest titled, \u201cPractice Guideline 13: Guidelines for Arbitrators on How to Approach the Making of Awards on interest\u201d. Starting from two distinct periods, pre-award and post-award, the guide explains several critical issues an arbitrator should consider in awarding interest. The guideline advises to establish a basis for awarding interest. Factors that are critical in the awarded interest i.e. period, discretion, rate, currency, delay in payment and type (simple or compound), are discussed. Specific issues related to the UK\u2019s Late Payment of Commercial Debts (Interest) Act, 1998 are considered. The guideline ends with sample interest clauses in an arbitration award.<\/p>\n

CIArb also has a guideline \u201cDrafting Arbitral Awards Part II – Interest\u201d. This guideline covers interest claims, time periods for interest claims, post-award interest, rate of interest and simple\/compound interest. The advice is general as curial law, rules and party-agreements have a large role in determining interest claims. Key guidance in this CIArb guideline is to invite submissions early in the process for interest claims and that interest in awards has to be compensative and not punitive.<\/p>\n

L. Awards<\/h4>\n

CIArb has a set of guidelines on drafting awards. The general one is titled, \u201cDrafting Arbitral Awards Part I – General\u201d. This guideline discusses drafting and communication of awards, common titles, conduct of deliberation, form and content of the award, and issues that arise after the awards are issued. The other CIArb award related guidelines, viz., \u201cDrafting Arbitral Awards Part II – Interest\u201d and \u201cDrafting Arbitral Awards Part III – Costs\u201d are covered under the headings of costs and interest in this essay.<\/p>\n

Apart from its basic checklist titled \u201cICC Award Checklist\u201d, the ICC has published an award checklist that covers most common and core requirement of an ICC award. Further, ICC also has a checklist titled \u201cICC Checklist on Correction and Interpretation of Awards\u201d. As the ICC Rules have a mechanism for a review of a proposed award by the ICC staff, this checklist serves to standardise the ICC review process for arbitral awards.<\/p>\n

M. Technology, privacy, and cybersecurity<\/h4>\n

In international arbitration, there are ever present concerns of technology\u2019s improper use. While technology brings efficiency and reduced costs, the risk of due process violations remains. CIARb has a guideline titled, \u201cCIArb Framework Guideline on the Use of Technology in International Arbitration (2021)\u201d. There is considerable guidance provided on deciding the scope of technology to be used without affecting the arbitrator\u2019s neutrality and other functions. Cybersecurity concerns are addressed with basic advice about password safety, avoiding public internet, among other suggestions. Virtual hearings have a key focus in the guideline. The guideline highlights that chronobiology matters in virtual hearings, because one international party may find a time zone very convenient, but it may affect others who are in different time zones. Arbitrators should also be concerned about the security of data when technology is being used.<\/p>\n

As virtual hearings became the norm during the pandemic, the ICC has published a \u201cChecklist for a Protocol on Virtual Hearings and Suggested Clauses for Cyber-Protocols and Procedural Orders Dealing with the Organisation of Virtual Hearings\u201d. This checklist provides guidance on procedural orders, hearings, witnesses among other issues that are very peculiar to virtual hearings. CIArb has also issued \u201cGuidance Note on Remote Dispute Resolution Proceedings\u201d (2020) for ease of doing virtual hearings.<\/p>\n

N. Hybrid mediation \u2014 Arbitration process combinations<\/h4>\n

CIArb has a specific guideline covering \u201cProfessional Practice Guideline on the Use of Mediation in Arbitration (2021)\u201d. The guideline refers to such combinations as, \u201cThese interactions are sometimes described as \u2018hybrid\u2019 processes and are known by various shorthand titles according to the sequence of processes \u2014 e.g., \u2018Med-Arb\u2019, \u2018Arb-Med\u2019 or \u2018Arb-Med-Arb….\u2019 The absence of such a description will not prevent the parties from choosing mediation.\u201d The hybrid med-arb process puts special responsibilities on the roles of arbitrators and mediators. A key issue in hybrid dispute resolution models is whether the same person can act as mediator and arbitrator. The guideline provides advice as to the stage when mediation is invoked in arbitration and consequential path of dispute resolution.<\/p>\n

O. Short form arbitrations<\/h4>\n

Documents only arbitrations and expedited arbitrations are prominent short-form arbitrations. CIArb has a guideline on \u201cDocuments-Only Arbitration Procedures\u201d. It provides interesting guidance on situations when in a document only arbitration, one of the sides seeks an oral hearing when either it has or has not waived its right to an oral hearing.<\/p>\n

P. Consumer arbitrations<\/h4>\n

CIArb\u2019s provides, \u201cPractice Guideline 17: Guidelines for Arbitrators Dealing with Cases Involving Consumers and Parties with Significant Differences of Resources\u201d. The guideline recognises the imbalance of power in consumer arbitration. This is a major problem in United States where consumer dispute arbitration is a significant category of arbitrations. Large companies in US favour consumer arbitrations as an alternative to class action litigation. But there is significant political and social resistance in US to consumer arbitrations as it gives an advantage to the corporations of confidentiality, but it may be a loss of bargaining power of consumers as a group in class actions.<\/p>\n

Q. Arbitration toolbox<\/h4>\n

ASA Swiss Arbitration provides an innovative online toolbox. This is a rather unique collection of arbitration tools in once place. The ASA website of arbitration toolbox is a veritable \u201cSwiss-Knife\u201d of arbitration guidance. There are a set of eight \u201cdecision trees\u201d set out in a system of helpful charts. For example, there is a detailed decision tree for the commencement of an arbitration. Among other decision trees, there is rich guidance in one of the decision trees regarding organisation of the arbitration. ASA arbitration tool box is a very useful, free resource for use by the parties and arbitrators in any arbitration.<\/p>\n

R. Other guidance<\/h4>\n

Data protection is a growing concern globally. Hence, ICC has a specific guideline titled \u201cModel Data Protection Clause for Procedural Order One\u201d.<\/p>\n

S. Conclusion<\/h4>\n

For an arbitrator looking for soft-law guidance, there are ready set of rules and guidelines available for most common issues. But arbitration, and international arbitration in particular, regularly throws-up challenges unknown to the existing soft-law guidance or statutes. Yet, a seasoned arbitrator will lean towards existing guidelines, as applicable to circumstances, to find a solution. That said, international arbitration thrives on procedural innovation. Today\u2019s experiments become tomorrow\u2019s guidelines. Hence, procedural innovations from arbitral organisations through soft-law guidance should continue in the international arbitration world.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n

\n

\u2020International arbitrator, mediator, and an independent counsel at HLaw Chambers, Mumbai, India.<\/span><\/strong><\/p>\n

1.<\/a> Black\u2019s Law Dictionary<\/span>, 9th<\/span> Edn., defines soft-law as, \u201c1. Collectively, rules that are neither strictly binding nor completely lacking in legal significance. 2. Int’I law. Guidelines, policy declarations, or codes of conduct that set standards of conduct but are not legally binding.\u201d Another example is OECD\u2019s definition of soft-law: \u201cCooperation based on instruments that are not legally binding, or whose binding force is somewhat \u2018weaker\u2019 than that of traditional law, such as codes of conduct, guidelines, roadmaps, peer reviews.\u201d See, <https:\/\/www.oecd.org\/gov\/regulatory-policy\/irc10.htm<\/a>>.<\/p>\n

2.<\/a> CIArb guidelines referred in this article are all available on its website. Specifically, International Arbitration Guidelines are available at <https:\/\/www.ciarb.org\/resources\/guidelines-ethics\/international-arbitration\/<\/a>> and Remote Proceedings <https:\/\/www.ciarb.org\/resources\/remote-proceedings\/<\/a>>.<\/p>\n

3.<\/a> ICC materials referred in this article are available at ICC Arbitration\u2019s website here: <https:\/\/iccwbo.org\/dispute-resolution\/dispute-resolution-services\/arbitration\/practice-notes-forms-and-checklists\/<\/a>>.<\/p>\n

4. <https:\/\/www.swissarbitration.org><\/a><\/p>\n

5.<\/a> ICC Dispute Resolution Bulletin 2015, Issue 2.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

by Hasit B. Seth\u2020
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